An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Design Essay

An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Design - Essay Example The balancing of these aspects in the new product development design is the outlook of ‘Sustainable product development and design’. â€Å"To create sustainable products and services that increase stakeholders quality of life, whilst at the same time achieving major reductions in resource and energy use, will require a significant emphasis on stimulating new ideas through higher levels of creativity and innovation†- e generation Business Learning Centre. Thus it becomes evident that creating new designs may need increased creativity as well as the fullest involvement form the varied strata of people, if new solutions and designs are to be generated which will substantiate the Sustainable Product Design Development. In general ‘sustainable development’ is to be seen as a basic human concept dealing with the kind of environment the people would like to live in. Sustainable development is a strong image but a provocative one. The best place to get good suggestions on the sustained development is the ‘customers’. Many companies have forgotten to talk to customers but have focused inwardly on the technological and improvements required for, primarily eco-design using less energy and less components etc. In many cases such suggestions may not be the right solution but nevertheless, it can be demonstrated that new ideas can reach marketplace if the conditions are right.† Quite understandably, the majority of people do not understand the academic concept of sustainable development. Indeed, research for the Department of Environment in the UK, indicated that sustainable development was seen as a government construct to keep people out of environmental issues† Marti n Charter and Anne Chick (1997). Keeping this context in view, this paper attempts to cover an overview of creation of new sustainable product designs to manufacture products, services and

The impact of coffee brands on the purchasing pattern of consumers Dissertation

The impact of coffee brands on the purchasing pattern of consumers - Dissertation Example The respondents further stated that they prefer speciality coffee outlets for consumption and purchase as the area also helps to gain a further work exposure (The Independent, 2011). A.3 The interviewees in response to the brand affinity for coffee purchase stated that they generally tend to go over branded coffee than ordinary ones while taking a purchase decision. This is because the branded coffee reflects a sign of fair trade over which the consumers can easily rely upon for consumption purposes (Hayden, 2010, p.10). A.4 The respondents in the age group of 15 to 43 stated that they are more keen to purchase established and premium brands over the ordinary brands in that the purchase of high branded products reflects the consumption of ethical products. These people state that consumption of ethical products would be hygienic enough and thus safer to consume (The Telegraph, 2012). 4.2.2 Qualitative Finding 2Â   The second set of findings the age group ranging from 44 to 82 years would be considered. This age group would also be subjected to the income groups ranging from 974 to 2184 Pounds and 2688 to 5217 Pounds. This would also be conducted based on open set of questions. A.1 The second group consisting of more elderly people however responded that they liked tea more than coffee in that it reflected the culture of the bygone era. These people thus pertaining to the old culture stated that they liked consuming tea more often than coffee and thereby tea stood as a more popular beverage to them. A.2 These respondents also mentioned that they liked the consumption of coffee from speciality corners rather than from retail... The paper would focus on understanding the impact of coffee brands on the purchasing pattern of consumers. The coffee industry in United Kingdom is constituted by products that can be marketed on a mass plane and those that are especially dedicated to meet special needs of the people. The coffee brands are marketed by companies like Nestle and Kraft Foods along with other normal brands. Again coffee companies like Starbucks account for the speciality consumer groups in the region. The findings of the research reflect that the consumers of United Kingdom are tending to grow an increasing affinity for coffee products as a beverage item. The consumers were divided essentially into two groups in regards to age and income variables. It was found that the younger generation reflected an increasing affinity for taking coffee as a beverage than tea while the older generation still depended on tea as their main beverage product. Further both the younger professionals and the older groups refl ected an increasing desire to consume coffee from speciality coffee parlours in that they created a niche market. Moreover it was found that premium and established brands gains a significant importance in the purchase criteria for coffee for the consumers of both age groups. The first set of key findings indicate on the group of consumers who belong to the younger and middle aged profile ranging from 15 to 43 years and also to the lower and middle level income groups. These set of consumers reflect a growing passion to get a taste of modern beverages like coffee served at coffee parlours.

Trichomonas Vaginalis and HIV in Asymptomatic Pregnant Women

Trichomonas Vaginalis and HIV in Asymptomatic Pregnant Women PREVALENCE OF TRICHOMONAS VAGINALIS AND HIV CO-INFECTION AMONG ASYMPTOMATIC PREGNANT WOMEN IN ZARIA, NORTHERN NIGERIA ABSTRACT Background: Trichomonas vaginalis is the most common curable sexually transmitted infection worldwide. Serious adverse reproductive health outcomes including pregnancy complications, pelvic inflammatory disease, and an increased risk of HIV acquisition have been linked to Trichomonas vaginalis infection. Objective: To determine the prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis in asymptomatic pregnant women and their HIV status in Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital Zaria, Northern Nigeria. Methodology: A prospective cross-sectional descriptive study, using a proforma to obtain demographic and reproductive health information from consenting pregnant women attending antenatal clinic. Vaginal swab and blood samples was taken and analysed for Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV respectively. Data was analysed using SPSS V17 with p value of significance was set at 0.05. Results: The overall prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis was 19.2%.There was an inverse relationship between the level of education and acquisition of Trichomonas vaginalis infection in pregnancy; women having no formal education had a higher prevalence of the Trichomonas vaginalis infection (7.5%) as against those who had tertiary education (1.7%). The 26- 30 years age group had the highest prevalence of both HIV infection (5.0%) and Trichomonas vaginalis infection (5.8%); strongly suggesting the possibility of co-infection between the two agents. There was a statistically significant association between Trichomonas vaginalis infection and HIV infection with a P value of 0.0003. The relative risk of acquiring HIV in the presence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection was 4. (RR 4.193 confidence Interval 1.756-10.01). Conclusion: Improvement of the socioeconomic status and education of women especially sexual health; will reduce the prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV co-infection. Keywords: Pregnancy, Trichomonas vaginalis, HIV infection INTRODUCTION Trichomonas vaginalis has continued to cause serious adverse reproductive health outcomes including pregnancy complications, pelvic inflammatory disease, and an increased risk of HIV acquisition1 The magnitude of social and economic consequences of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in developing countries has made it a major public health problem. 2, 3 STIs are also found in pregnant women and the prevalence is higher in Africa causing significant maternal and perinatal morbidity. 3-5 Trichomonas vaginalis is a unicellular flagellate protozoan organisms that cause STI.6 Many STIs including those due to Trichomonas, can be transmitted to the fetus via transplacental spread or by passage through the birth canal and via lactation to the neonate. 6 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) and other Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs) have been associated with a number of adverse pregnancy outcomes which includes abortion, stillbirth, preterm delivery, low birth weight, postpartum sepsis, neonatal pneumonia, neonatal blindness congenital infection. 2-5, 7 Recent research has shown that having one untreated STI increases the risk of contracting another potentially more dangerous one, like Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection if there is exposure. 8, 9Trichomoniasis in pregnancy has been reported to impacts adversely on birth outcomes and is also a co-factor in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) transmission and acquisition. 10, 11 Clinical infection with Trichomonas vaginalis in the neonate is an unusual occurrence and has been reported in a two weeks old girl child presenting with vaginal discharge with complete resolution to metronidazole treatment.12 Due to high frequency of the infection during pregnancy and the development of metronidazole-resistant isolates, therapeutic alternatives to 5-nitroimidazole are being searched like Triterpenes; which are natural products presenting several biological activities such as anti-protozoal activity.13 The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infections are typically underestimated due to poor sensitivity of diagnostic tests.6 However, the World Health Organization (WHO) quoted the overall prevalence as 3.1%.6, 14 In Nigeria the prevalence observed in an Enugu study was 6.9%; 15 4.7% was seen in Ilorin16 and 29.8% in Lagos.17 In the sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria, Trichomoniasis has neither been the focus of intensive study nor of active control programs, and this neglect is likely a function of the relatively mild nature of the disease. 18 This study explored the rate of Trichomonas infection in pregnancy as well as the level of co-infection with HIV with a view to adding to the growing body of literature and suggests control measures. METHODOLOGY This was a cross sectional study which was conducted over a three month period. Questionnaires were used to obtain the socio-demographic and reproductive profile from consenting clients who were attending antenatal clinic for the first time in their current pregnancy at the Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria, Northern Nigeria. High vaginal swabs and blood specimens for both Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV were obtained and analysed. The data obtained was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 17.0 for windows. The level of significance was considered to be p-value Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV infection was determined using the Epi-Info software. RESULTS A total of 120 women consented for the study. The socio-demographic and obstetric characteristics of the patients are as shown in Table 1.0. The mean age was 28.5 + 2.3years, mean gravidity was 3.5 and 20 weeks was the average gestational age at booking. The overall prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis was 19.2%. The 26-30 years age groups having a value of 5.8% which was closely followed by age group 21-25years with 5.0%. The lowest prevalence was found at age group 36-40years. Low level of education is shown to have a positive impact on the acquisition of vaginal Trichomonas vaginalis. Clients having low level of education had a higher prevalence of the Trichomonas vaginalis; 7.5% was seen in those with Koranic (non-formal) education. The prevalence was however lowest in those who had tertiary education 1.7%.- The highest prevalence was seen in clients who were housewives (10.5%); students and civil servants had the lowest prevalence of 1.7% and 2.5% respectively. Mutigravidae are more likely than primigravidae to have Trichomonas vaginalis infection (15.0% vs. 4.1%). The prevalence was observed to be highest in the second trimester (10.8%) as compared to the first and third trimester which were 5.0% and 3.3% respectively. The frequency distribution of HIV status in the study population among the consenting client is shown in Table 2.0. Sixteen out of 98 were positive for HIV giving a prevalence of 16.3%. Figure 1.0 shows the percentage distribution of HIV by client’s age group. It was observed that HIV was more prevalent in age group 26-30years (5.0%) and was least prevalent in the older age group of 36-40years (0.8%). The relationship between the occurrence of Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV infection is shown in a two by two table (Table 2.0). DISCUSSION The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis found in this study was 19.2%. The World Health Organization quoted a prevalence of between 3.0- 3.1%6, 14, 19, but added that there was under reporting of the infection. Prevalence rates as high as 29.8% was found in Lagos, Nigeria 17 16.0% was seen in Mwanza, Tanzania20 and a lower rate of 4.7% and 6.9% were found in Ilorin, Nigeria 16 and Enugu, Nigeria15 respectively. A prevalence of 3.7% was seen in a study in Togo.21 Our result compares with that of Tanzania. In the age related prevalence, the study showed a steady increase in prevalence between ages of 16 to 30years, with the highest rate of 5.8% occurring in the age group 26-30years. This may suggest an increasing sexual activities along the age line considering the fact that Trichomonas vaginalis is sexually transmitted. This can also probably explain the decline in prevalence in the older age group with lowest rate of 0.8% at age group 35-40years. There is however a slight variation with the Enugu study which found the highest age related prevalence of 3.7% among the age group 20-25years. There was an inverse relationship between the level of education and acquisition of Trichomonas vaginalis infection in pregnancy; women having no formal education had a higher prevalence of the Trichomonas vaginalis infection (7.5%) as against those who had tertiary education (1.7%). This was consistent with findings in Enugu and Ilorin where low level of education was associated with Trichomonas vaginalis infection. Formal education is associated with improvement in personal hygiene and sexual behavior. The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis was highest among housewives and least among students; this was unlike the Enugu study that found the highest prevalence to be among the business group. The sociocultural backgrounds of the two environment relatively differs and the lack formal education among housewives in our environment can be a predisposing factor to the acquisition of Trichomonas vaginalis infection. There appears to be a relationship between parity, trimester of pregnancy and infection with Trichomonas vaginalis. Previous pregnancies was recorded in the literature to be a risk factor.10 This study showed a higher prevalence rate among the multigravidae as compared to primigravidae. The prevalence was highest in the second trimester of pregnancy as compared to other trimesters. This findings was similar that of Cotch et al4 in their study of vaginal infections and prematurity; where Trichomonas vaginalis infection was commonest in mid gestation. The mean age at booking was 20 weeks showing that most women were seen in the second trimester when Trichomonas vaginalis infection was more likely to be present. The prevalence of HIV infection in this study was 16.8% which was higher than the national average of 3.4% and Kaduna state average of 9.2%. 22 This may be explained by the fact that most of the clients were in their reproductive years and the Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria was a major referral center for the Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV in Northern Nigeria. Both HIV and Trichomonas vaginalis infection were highest in the age group 26-30 years; this was strongly suggestive of the possibility of co-infection between the two agents. There was a statistically significant association between Trichomonas vaginalis infection and HIV infection with a P value of 0.0003. There was a four times relative risk of acquiring HIV in the presence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection (RR 4.193 confidence Interval 1.756-10.01). CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Routine screening for STIs like Trichomonas vaginalis during antenatal period should be the standard of care because of its proven benefits on the outcome of pregnancy. Metronidazole which is the treatment option when found, is a cheap, readily available and safe in pregnancy. Additionally, screening for HIV co-infection will add value to healthcare services in the antenatal clinic. Improvement of the socioeconomic status and formal education in women especially sexual health and lifestyle modification is likely to reduce the prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV co infection. REFERENCE: Coleman JS, Gaydos CA, Witter F. Trichomonas vaginalis Vaginitis in Obstetrics and Gynecology Practice: New Concepts and Controversies. Obstet Gynecol Surv. Jan 2013; 68(1): 43–50. doi: 10.1097/OGX.0b013e318279fb7d Begum A, Nilufar S, Akther K, Rahman A, Khatun F, Rahman M. Prevalence of selected reproductive tract infections among pregnant women attending an urban maternal and childcare unit in Dhaka, Bangladesh. J Health Popul Nutr 2003; 21: 112-6. Muelen J, Mgaya HN, Chang-Claude J, et al. Risk factors for HIV infection in gynaecological inpatients in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, 1988-1990. East Afr Med J 1992; 69: 688-92. Cotch MF, Pastorek JG, Nugent RP: Trichomonas vaginalis associated with low birth weight and preterm delivery.The Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. Sex Transm Dis 1997 Jul; 24(6): 353-60 Shuter J, Bell D, Graham D, Holbrook KA, Bellin EY. Rates of and risk factors for trichomoniasis among pregnant inmates in New York City. Sex Transm Dis 1998; 25: 303-7. Richard Gentry Wilkerson, et al. Trichomoniasis via http/eMedicine emergency medicine>infectious disease. Accessed March 20 2008, 1430hrs. Sebitloane HM, Moodley J, Esterhuizen TM. Pathogenic lower genital tract organisms in HIV-infected and uninfected women, and their association with postpartum infectious morbidity. S Afr Med J. 2011 Jun 27; 101(7):466-9. Ament, L. A. and E. Whalen (1996). â€Å"Sexually transmitted diseases in pregnancy: diagnosis, impact, and intervention.† J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 25(8): 657-66. Borchardt, K. A. (1994). â€Å"Trichomoniasis: its clinical significance and diagnostic challenges.† Am Clin Lab 13(9): 20-1. Laga M, Manoka A, Kivuvu M, et al. Non- ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases as risk factors for HIV-1 transmission in women: results from a cohort study. AIDS 1993; 7: 95-102. Sorvillo F, Smith L., Kerndt P, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis, HIV and African-Americans. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7:927-32 (Medline). Irving S D, James M S et al; Neonatal T. Vaginalis infection. Journal of Emergency Medicine; vol 13 issue 1 Jan – Feb 1995. 51-54 Innocente AM, Vieira PB, Frasson AP, Casanova BB, Gosmann G, Gnoatto SC, Tasca T. Anti-Trichomonas vaginalis activity from triterpenoid derivatives. Parasitol Res. 2014 Aug; 113(8):2933-40. doi: 10.1007/s00436-014-3955-0. Madeline S et al Trichomoniasis highly prevalent in US black women clin infec dis 2007; 45:1319-1325 Chigozie J. U, Cletus D. C. U., Ali, Mirian A. Trichomonas vaginalis infection in pregnant women in South – Eastern Nigeria; a public health importance. The internet Journal of obstetrics and gynecology accessed 20th April 2008. Aboyeji AP, Nwabuisi C. Prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases among pregnant women in Ilorin, Nigeria. J Obstet Gynaecol 2003; 23: 637-9. Oladele TO et al, Reliance on microscopy in T. Vaginalis Diagnosis and prevalence in female presenting with vaginal discharge in Lagos Nigeria.eMedicine on pubmed accessed 20 August 2008 2100Hrs Ogunjobi BO, Osola AO; Trichomonal Vagintis in Nigerian Women; Tropical Geographic Medicine 1984 36(1): 67-70. WHO: Trichomoniasis. Available at: http://www.who.int. Mayaud P, Uledi E, Cornelissen J, et al. Risk scores to detect cervical infections in urban antenatal clinic attenders in Mwanza, Tanzania. Sex Transm Infect 1998; 74 Suppl 1: S139-46. Tchelougou DI, Karou DS, Kpotsra A, Balaka A, Assih M, Bamoke M, Katawa G, Anani K, Simpore J, de Souza C. Vaginal infections in pregnant women at the Regional Hospital of Sokode (Togo) in 2010 and 2011. Med Sante Trop. 2013 Jan-Mar;23 (1):49-54. doi: 10.1684/mst.2013.0142. Federal Ministry of Health [Nigeria] (2013). National HIV AIDS and Reproductive Health Survey, 2012 (NARHS Plus). Federal Ministry of Health Abuja, Nigeria. Pp 40-42. 1

Civil War Aspects :: essays research papers

At 4:30 AM the Confederates opened fire with 50 cannons upon Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. The Civil War began. With seven states already seceded from the Union, the confederate states took a strong stance. Just as the Confederacy was formed in early 1861, the Confederate soldiers began taking over. On April 19th, President Lincoln issued a Proclamation of Blockade against Southern ports. For the duration of the war, the blockade limited the ability of the South to stay well supplied in its war against the North. Through the majority of the beginning of the war, Lincoln noted the war as a struggle for maintaining in the world, that form, and substance of government, whose leading object is, to elevate the condition of men. The Pro slavery South was, in many ways reacting to the North's attack on the slavery and its expansion. Slavery is an institution that must continue to grow for its survival. Moreover, expansion for the South meant growth, politically, socially and economically, and it meant more political power. It is anticipation to want to make what one has larger and stronger, just as the South wanted to expand and gain power. The Southern politicians did this through political moves such as the Annexation of Texas, "Bleeding Kansas", the Ostend Manifesto, and through the Dred Scott decision. All of which pissed of the North, and convinced them that the south was trying to dominate the U.S with slavery. I believe that the war was fought over the moral issue of slavery. The North did not care about the institution of slavery as long as it stayed in the South. South Carolina seceded, because Lincoln was voted into office. The Republican party threatened the South's expansionism and therefore Southerners felt that they had no other choice but to secede. The Republican party had no intention of ending slavery in the South or freeing the slaves; they just did not want slavery to expand, "Because the scene of intestine struggle will thus be transferred from the south to the North." (N.Y Tribune 11/29/1860) The United States was divided into three groups by the time the Civil War began: those who believed in the complete abolition of slavery, those who were against the expansion of slavery, and those who were pro slavery. Many like to believe that the moral aspect of slavery is what made it an issue. When the Republican candidate, Abraham Lincoln, was elected in 1860, the South felt that its expansionism was being threatened, and because expansion was vital to the

The Story of Great Octopus

The octopus really all he said was wi,wi and kiss a fish but never did he ever say forever the point of a frustrated and confused member of the social order, It appears to me that we are living In a society where stupidity easily fits Into a simple, three tier, hierarchical model. Where Darwin argued that species adapt, I would argue that–at least where â€Å"civilized† culture is concerned–humanitys intellectual evolution is rapidly decreasing, therefore allowing us as a whole to adapt to a culture where the art of thinking is becoming obsolete.This author submits toyou that, due o technology and volumes of procedure protocol having been written for every Job imaginable, people have lost their ability to reason Intellectually and have essentially â€Å"dumbed down. † This, my friends. Is the curious but sad truth of the matter. Therefore, I believe that stupidity can be reasonably fitted into the following three tier, hierarchical model. Jacques Seguela w rites about political campaigns and communications not merely as an expert analyst, but as an experienced practitioner.Hence his latest book contains both insights worth heeding, but also enlivening tales of his own experience. He Is observer and participant; outsider looking In, and Insider looking out. There Is much to look at, not least In France with a Presidential election looming, and the outcome far from easy to predict. We live in a world defined by the pace of change, and whilst the velocity of that change has not always impacted upon our political institutions, many of which would remain recognisable to figures of history, it most certainly has impacted upon political communications.As Seguela writes: ‘En 5 ans le monde de la communication a plus evolue que dans les cents dernieres annees. ‘ Google, Youtube. Twitter, Facebook have quickly entered our language and changed the way we communicate, live our private lives, do business, do politics. People do not bel ieve politicians as much as they once did. Nor do they believe the media. So who do we believe? We believe each other. The power and the political potential of social networks flows from that reality.Though fiercely modern In their application, social networks In some ways take us back to the polltlcs of the village square. They are an electronic word of mouth on a sometimes global scale. This has changed the way people Interact with ach other and with their politicians. My first campaign as spokesman and strategist for Tony Blair was in 1997, three years in the planning after he had become leader of the Opposition Labour Party. Some of the principles of strategy we applied back then would certainly apply to a modern day election.But their tactical execution almost certainly would not. Politicians and their strategists have to adapt to change as well as lead it. Seguela gives some interesting insights into those who have adapted well, and those who have done less well. He clearly ad ores former President Lula of Brazil and you can feel his yearning or a French leader who can somehow combine hard-headed strategy with human empathy In the same way as a man who left office with satisfaction ratings of 87percent. Seguela probably remains best known In political circles for his role aavlslng Francols Mltterrana.Yet wneras I am trlDal Laoour, ana could not Imagine supporting a Conservative Party candidate in the I-JK, Seguela came out as a major supporter of Nicolas Sarkozy. I wonder if one of the reasons was not a frustration that large parts of the left in France remain eternally suspicious of modern ommunications techniques and styles which, frankly, no modern leader in a modern democracy can ignore. How he or she adapts to, or uses, them is up to them. But you cannot stand aside and imagine the world has not changed.If Lula is a star of this book, so too is Barack Obama. American elections are of enormous interest to all political campaign Junkies, a category in which both Seguela and I would almost certainly qualify. Much is made of Obama's use of the internet, a relatively new phenomenon in historical terms and one the young Senator used brilliantly in his quest to become President. Yet though it was an accurate expression of his modernity, underpinning its use were some very old-fashioned campaign principles.He used it to turn supporters into activists who both gave funds and also took his campaign materials and ideas and ran their own campaigns for him. Somehow he managed to make one of the most professional, most disciplined and best funded campaigns in history look like an enormous act of democratic participation. It was less command and control – the model we certainly adopted in 1997 and 2001, Labour's two landslide victories, easing off a little for our third win in 2005 – than inspire and empower. ‘ Yes we can' not yes I can'.His supporters were more than supporters. They were an active part of the campaign, an d of the message. The key to this was something that had nothing to do with politicians and everything to do with science, technology and the internet. Ask me who has had the most influence on campaigns in recent times and I might be tempted to reply Tim Berners-Lee, the man credited with gifting the web to the world. Its implications have been far reaching in virtually all aspects of our lives, politics and political campaigns foremost.The new ousehold brand names of the cyber era have not replaced good policy work, messaging and organisation. But they have become essential components of the execution of them in the campaign. Mainstream conventional media remains important and influential, not least because, bizarrely, in most democracies the broadcasters continue to let the press set their agenda for them. But a candidate who tries to stand against the tide of new media will be making a big mistake, and missing big opportunities. If it has changed so much in the last five years, h ow much more will it change in the next five years?

Byzantine Christians Essay

Until the middle of the nineteenth century, historians and geographers in the European world held that history has a Locus. For them, pre-modern history began in the Bible Lands and it started moving westward and northward from western Asia into and across Western Europe. By 1492 the world scope of history was Eurasia. Only after 1492 did the world expand to include areas outside of Eurasia. For these historians, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and part of Southeast Asia had no history until Europeans brought it to them in the sixteenth century and afterwards. These regions did not exist until discovered by Europeans. REVIEWING THE PAST: Pre-contact history of the Americas does not have the same level of conceptual reality of post-contact history. Only very few world historians seem to know o about the native traditions that existed in pre-Columbian America. The post-Columbian world is filled with abstract frameworks such as the ‘Slave Trade’, ‘Colonialism’ ’poverty’ , beginning with Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, ancient China and Egypt, the Assyrians and Persians, and ending with the Greeks, Romans and Byzantine Christians. American Indian civilizations, primarily those of the Aztecs and Incas, only form a backdrop to the post-conquest European themes of contact, settlement, and expansion. COLONIALISM: Throughout the contemporary world native and aboriginal peoples face disputes regarding their human rights, political participation, and claims to their ancestral economic resources where historical globalization began in the fifteenth century. Since then, colonialism and neocolonialism emerged in the global system. Natives and aboriginals were subjected to the worst side of the globalization process. We still can witness the legacy of such a development in the form of shabby leftovers. ECONOMY AND SLAVERY: Precious metals, commodities, and slave labor from the New World and Africa spurred the development of mercantile capitalism, the rise of the bourgeoisie, and the maturation of European absolutist states. These, in conjunction with encounters with different peoples, gave birth to a synergy of political ideologies and philosophical tools that propelled Europe to world domination. The invention of America involved the simultaneous invention of Europe as the â€Å"West. † conclusion: â€Å"The third-class people of the world have risen up and there is nothing we can do about it. † By the third-class citizens of the world are people outside white Europe and the United States. In 57 years as well, global interconnectedness has made itself ever more minutely felt through the communications revolution, the globalization of trade and production, and massive new migrations. Modernization analysis in the late 1950s began to take on a distinctive shape of its own. An intellectual transformation , a political transformation and a social transformation that mobilized human resources in an efficient way and engaged them in the process of modernization and globalization.