Ludwig Feuerbach The Essence Of Christianity Religion Essay

Ludwig Feuerbach The Essence Of Christianity Religion Essay Feuerbachs own introduction to the second print of his The Essence of Christianity is as good an exposà © as any of both his intentions and the content of his book. His own comments on the style of his writing are insightful both with regard to the content of the book as of the Young Hegelian movement as a whole. Forms, it seems, encapsulates the direction which Hegelian thought seem to have taken. This sense of style seems both as a device by which Feuerbach distances himself from the at times tiresome and elaborate musings of the German philosophical tradition and as a means by which to demonstrate the immediate and down-to-earth conclusion he himself has drawn from studying the Christian faith. In doing so Feuerbach claims to walk a path wholly of his own making, far removed from the obfuscation associated with Hegels work. Style, then, is as much content as it is on the surface of things. It tells us both to whom the message is addressed and the context in which it is written. F euerbach is, perhaps as a result of his awareness of the to be resolved Hegelian dichotomy between form and content, highly self-conscious of the form he is taking in addressing his audience: I have never held, surely, the scholars to be the measure of true learning and of the art of writing; not those abstract and particular academic philosophers, but universal man instead. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) and I have made a law of the highest level of clarity, simplicity and determinacy to the extent to which the subject matter allows it. I have done so in all my writing, including this one, in order that every educated and thinking man can at the very least understand the main point of my work.  [2]   Feuerbachs style is inherently democratic and adverse to the prevalent mandarinism of the German intelligentsia. It is a statement in and by itself. The suggestion Feuerbach is making is that this is the language of science. These are not subjective utterances of a particular individual but irrefutable truth arrived at by virtue of strict application of a thoroughly rational methodology. Feuerbachs posture is one of a levelheaded thinker who aspires to the elementary truth. A truth that is, as we shall see, not shrouded in the abstract mysteries of abstract thought, but instead claims to be commonplace. One only needs to look clearly at the world in order for the ghosts of speculative idealism to dissipate. Feuerbach is practising the art of artlessness. Many of those influenced by Feuerbach have tried to emulate this posture and it is probable that a large part of the success of The Essence of Christianity is due to it tone. Its tone must have been seductive to an ever increasing contingent of thinkers barred from having a place within the established order. The author of The Essence, so it seems, took a certain pride in his lack of social stature. After all, such rogue thinkers might well be more inclined to think outside the box, not needing to adorn their truths in order to make them acceptable to all. This pathos is certainly recognizable in our present and practically an idiom in popular culture. At the time of its publication, however, the feeling was such that The Essence had cleared new grounds. It was frequently said that The Essence had a liberating effect. It expressed double entendre implied the spirit of the age. Or at least the very least the spirit of a particular segment within the 19th century German speaking coun tries of Central Europe. A segment of society that was repressed and excluded and had now, finally, found a voice to call its own. Feuerbachs aim was to clear away the alienating representations of Christianity in order to gain an empiricism that allowed to clearly state the nature of reality. Feuerbach: (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) weiter will meine Schrift nichts sein als eine sinngetreue ÃÅ"bersetzung bildlos ausgedrà ¼kt: eine empirisch- oder historisch-philosophische Analyse, Auflà ¶sung des Rà ¤tsels der christliche Religion.  [3]   (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) my book wants to nothing more than a translation that is true to the senses expressed without images: an empirical- or historical-philosophical analysis, resolution of the mystery of the Christian religion.  [4]   In the above Feuerbach makes clear his intent. He wants to strip bare the Hegelian dialectic into its most elementary form and overcome an idealism that is identified as being synonimous with the teachings of Christianity. The truth attained after decomposing Christianity will be immediate, sensual, and therefore without images. These words resemble those of an iconoclast, of someone wanting to empty the faith of all idolatry that stands in the way of truth. This is feeling is enhanced by Feuerbachs insistence that the Christianity which he shall tackle is not the same today as it was at the moment of its own genesis.  [5]  The original teachings of the Christian faith by Jesus have been steadily corrupted, according to Feuerbach, by subsequent interpretations and explanations of theologists. Theology has transformed Christianity into dogmas that are contradictory and unintelligible. The Essence is an attempt to retrieve the religion of Christianity from its theology, and Feuerbach makes a clear distinction between the two. Only after going back to this moment of authenticity within the Christian faith, that is, of the original myths surrounding the teachings of Jesus, can we hope to gain a new insight as to what these myths really imply. This explicit disapproval of theology in Feuerbachs writing is, as we shall see, consistent with a particular strand of anti-intellectualism expressed in The Essence. For Feuerbach believed that he had transcended not only the limitations of religion but those of philosophy as well. The Essence is itself therefore not a work of philosophy but of anthropology. In anthropology both religion and philosophy were superseded; it provided immediate, scientific, truths about human nature. By emphasizing that he was practicing another form of enquiry altogether Feuerbach tried to make more dramatic his break with both Christianity and the excesses of speculative philosophy as done by Hegel. Anthropology was believed to provide concrete results that could be empirically verified by basic human understanding, doing so in a commonsense language untainted by jargon. Anthropology dealt with humanity in general and had as a field of study, according to Feuerbach, something concrete and real. For humanity was undeniable since we ourselves were human. Feuerbach abhorred the tendency of idealist thought to reduce everything to the consciousness of the single mind. This, he thought, was an absurdity since much of what one calls ones own can be seen to be embodied by other human beings as well.  [6]  The human body was as a source of non-intellectual understanding, or feeling, shared by all members of the species.  [7]   So too was (historic) human culture a field for the creation of collective meaning by which those unalienable qualities of the human race could be represented. Feuerbach remained a Hegelian in seeing historical development of human culture in connection with the development of human consciousness. He too believed that the ideas and truths developed and represented in culture would, given time, be embodied by human consciousness. Feuerbach diverted from Hegel in seeing this development in terms of mans understanding of himself as member of a species. This understanding was expressed in highly naturalistic and empirical terms. With regard to Strauss, Feuerbach said not to be interested in the question of whether Jesus Christ had truly existed or not. Nor would Feuerbach critically interpret theology, a field in which he had no interest other than a feeling of disdain. What was of interest was the instantly recognizable myth told by the Biblical story of humanities redemption through Christ. This was the core around which the webs of mystification were spun. Just as the life and death of Christ was key in Hegels understanding of the Christian faith in being his philosophys other. So too was redemption, according to Feuerbach, the single most important event which had taken place in human history. Feuerbachs task was to take this myth and explain it in atheistic, anthropological, terms which directly reflected the hope and aspirations of humanity at large. This was not, however, to reduce or criticize the essence of faith. Rather, this methodology exhibited in The Essence was to scientifically explain the myth central to Christianity. In the understanding of the dialectic this meant that the content of the Bible, which was still marred by an excessive dependence on representation, could be brought on a higher plain of immediate understanding. In other words, although Christianity contained a truth, this truth was itself marred by Christianity. Christianity was in contradiction with itself, a contradiction that had to be resolved by its being superseded by anthropology. Feuerbach says of this: Ich (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) lasse die Religion sich selbst aussprechen; ich mache nur ihren Zuhà ¶rer und Dolmetscher, nicht ehren Souffleur.  [8]   I (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) let religion speak for it self; I am merely its audience and translator, not its critic.  [9]   Feuerbach, like Hegel, sees Christianity as a mirror of human consciousness. The qualities ascribed to Christianity are, in truth, the qualities of the human mind at a given time. Throughout The Essence the claim is repeated that faith is but an alienated manifestation of the self-as-species. The consciousness of God is the self-consciousness of mankind, the knowledge of God is the understanding of mankind. Religion is the first attempt towards self-consciousness. Yet it is in itself flawed; it remains an indirect self-consciousness through the manifestations of religion. Feuerbach writes in a sentence that could have been made by Hegel himself; Der Mensch verlegt sein Wesen zuerst außer sich, ehe er es in sich findet.  [10]   At first man misplaces his essence outside himself, before finding it within himself.  [11]   Everything that is to be found in religion can be found in actual human consciousness itself. Religion is constituted by reverence for alienated qualities of the self. Despite all its grandeur, religion has no content that is particular to its self. Religion is alienation itself and therefore made up around nothingness. This also explain the vague, indistinct, character of the omnipotent Christian God. God is said to embody all virtues of man, yet none in particular. God is everywhere, yet nowhere in particular. God knows everything, because he knows nothing in particular. According to Feuerbach the very notion of God is itself void: (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) weil alle Dinge, die der Vernunft imponieren, vor der Religion verschwinden, ihre Individualità ¤t verlieren, im Auge der gà ¶ttlichen Macht nichts sind. Die Nacht is die Mutter der Religion.  [12]   (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) because all things, that are impressive to the mind, vanish before religion, lose their individuality, are nothing in the eyes of God. The night is the mother of religion.  [13]   Religion is itself the very movement by which man loses his own essence. That which enriches our conception of God makes our understanding of ourselves all the more poorer.  [14]  The two are directly related in that what benefits one deprecates the other. In the mirror house of representation that is religion, a strange shift has occurred the puts the world upside-down. God, the representation, has replace man as representans, that is, as the very source from which the representation was brought forth. Der Mensch dies ist das Geheimnis der Religion vergegenstà ¤ndlicht sein Wesen und macht dann wieder sich zum Gegenstand dieses vergegenstà ¤ndlichten, in ein Subjekt, eine Person verwandelten Wesens; er denkt sich, ist sich Gegenstand, aber als Gegenstand eines Gegenstands, eines andern Wesens. So hier. Der Mensch ist ein Gegenstand Gottes.  [15]   Man this is the secret of religion objectifies his being and then again transforms himself into an object in relation to his own objectification, into a subject, a essence changed into a person; he thinks himself, is object to himself, but as object to an object, another being. There you have it. Man is an object of God.  [16]   As was hinted at in the above, however, Christianity carries within itself a contradiction. According to Feuerbach this contradiction means the end of Christianity itself and has to do with the notion of love. Love was crucial in the story of redemption. In this Biblical narrative man is redeemed in the eyes of God through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. Jesus had died for our sins in the name of mankind in an act of love and so had brought us into union with God. A harmony had been restored. A new holy light shone upon mankind in which all men were henceforth assured of the love of God. Feuerbach that this was the message and myth central to Christianity; a myth that was still clearly visible after ages of theological corruption. But Feuerbach believed that love did not unify mankind but, instead, divided it into those having Gods grace and those lacking it. The notion of love, central to Christianity, narrowed the conception of who was man and who was not. In practice love had gained a negative meaning; it served to denote the faithful from the heathen.  [17]  Love, then, determined who was to be fought and annihilated. Im Glauben liegt ein bà ¶ses Prinzip, that is, in faith there rests an evil principle.  [18]  Love is, according to Feuerbach, an completely natural and distinctly human instinct. Love is one of the most compassionate, benign, qualities of man. Love serves to bridge the gap between subject and subject; it is by virtue of itself inter-personal. Yet Christianity had managed to pervert love and make it not into a unifying notion, but a dividing one. Christian love, then, furthered particularity and subjectiveness, preventing a higher dialectical union in universal objectivity. Feuerbach had granted love a moral dimension. To love mankind is a moral type of love, to love a single individual is a personal, subjective love.  [19]  The former unifies, the latter divides. For to love a single person is to excluse others from your love. Only universal love of man-as-species is moral. Since love of God is love that is particular it shows itself to be immoral. The love of God deprives mankind from the love of both other human beings and himself as a member of mankind. Christian love is therefore intricately connected not only with the image of those who do not receive it and are the enemy but also with the notion of self-hate. To love God is to alienate that which make you human and thus reduce oneself to something underserving of that very love. This is why the concept of sin in a post-Christian era would not make any sense. Sin exists by virtue of God, a God whom we have granted our most valuable and essential qualities. We are sinfull because we have alienated our essence unto God. To deny God is to reclaim those qualities. Since I cannot be in contradiction with myself, there is not higher authority, I cannot live in sin.  [20]   Christianity is essentailly intolerant and adverse to any true understanding of love. It denies that which it claims is its essence. Christianity, then, in the end, denies itself. This is what Feuerbach meant with the idea that to let Christainity speak for it self is to end it. It is a negativity that negates itself. Love has to be made universal. We should not say, as Feuerbach would have it, God is love, but Love is god.  [21]  God is our own universal nature that we have alienated through religion. Love is synonimous with universality itself. Feuerbach: Die wahre Liebe ist sich selbst genug; sie bedarf keiner besondern Titel, keiner Autorità ¤t. Die Liebe ist das universale Gesetz der Intelligenz und Natur sie ist nichts andres als die Verwirklichung der Einheit der Gattung auf dem Wege der Gesinnung.  [22]   True love is enough by virtue of itself; it needs not special titel, no authority. Love is the universal law of intelligence and nature it is nothing else but the realization of the unity of the species on the road of natural inclination.  [23]   Love is only free when it is universal, unrestrained by particularity. Only then can it serve as the means by which man recognizes himself-as-species. The notion of species is not a cold intellectual thought; the very energy of love, our most human of inclinations, is that which constitues our species-being.  [24]  The historical figure Jesus Christ is therefore nothing else but our species-being represented in a singular image. Since we are all human, and therefore part of humanity, so too are all of us Christ.  [25]   (The emperorss new clothes by Hans Christian Andersson as a metaphor for Stirners Ego and Its own; The Emperor (Feuerbach) is not wearing any clothes!)

Biblical Terms Used in Counseling Essay

Dr. William Roberts LaTonia Watkins Liberty University COUN 501 December 18, 2009 Abstract The topic of counseling has been up for discussion for sometime as it relates to the spiritual or biblical aspect versus the worldview or secular concept. There has been some disagreement in regards to whether or not one can be a Christian counselor who have a level of morals and ethics that will allow them to not let their own personal beliefs affect the level of service they provide, when faced with an issue that goes against their beliefs. Upon conducting a biblical word search for counsel or counseling related terms it becomes evident that the core principles and foundation of counseling is found throughout the bible. The information obtained will detail the usefulness of the Bible in engaging in a meaningful as well as effective counseling profession. Biblical Terms Used In Counseling There has been much dispute as to the usefulness and validity for using biblical concepts in counseling. The most common disagreement is found between counseling professionals and Christian counseling professionals. Pride (2006) states, â€Å"psychology approaches human behavior from a secular, humanistic perspective. † Accordingly, Biblical revelation is irrelevant to understanding or changing human behavior. Psychology seeks to describe and explain human behavior apart from what God has clearly revealed. Its premises are derived from man-made theories, human wisdom and research conducted without a corresponding search for truth as God defines truth. Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) have a different opinion of counseling and prefer using the Bible stating â€Å"secular psychology begins with a study of man’s ideas; Biblical counseling begins with a study of the Word of God as it relates to human behavior and human need. Therefore it is dependent upon the revealed mind of God rather than the easily deceived mind of man. † However it does not begin with God, it follows a path that lines up with the Word of God and examines man’s problems in light of God’s responses. The two aforementioned viewpoints are clear cut examples of the differences in opinions and viewpoints for counseling from a secular perspective as well as the religious perspective. Another view of counseling attempts to integrate religion/biblical views or perspectives with psychological counseling which is known as the secular-humanist view. Some view counseling as a process of prayerfully and sensitively listening to another person (Proverbs 18:13, 17), helping discern soul needs and providing biblical advice towards changing the attitudes and behaviors towards modeling God. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the validity of the Bible as a source for counseling and to expand the overall view of counseling perspectives. By examining words and concepts in the Bible as they relate to counseling the relationship between the two will be discovered. Using Biblical concepts adds depth and enriches the counseling relationship (Pride, 2006). Also addressed in this paper will be the ways of Biblical terms and their relationship to modern counseling concepts. Biblical counseling terms can provide a useful tool for counseling as well as allows for an understanding of counseling concepts in the field of counseling. Biblical Words Related to Counseling Counsel The term counsel is found to be translated 80 times throughout the King James Version of the bible which includes 74 verses between the Old Testament and the New Testament combined. According to the word search the term counsel is used interchangeably with several terms in the bible such as advise (Qal), consult (Nipal) and conspire (Hithpael). Judges 18:5 â€Å"They said, ‘Oh, good- inquire of God for us. Find out whether our mission will be a success. †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ In this passage they are seeking (consult) God for his guidance (advise) in regards to the outcome of their mission. I Kings 12:8-9 â€Å"But he rejected the counsel of the elders and asked the young men he’d grown up with who were now currying his favor, ‘What do you think? What should I say to these people who are saying, give us a break from your father’s harsh ways- lighten up on us’? † This passage also shows an example of someone seeking advice in their situation. Mark 3:6 â€Å"The Pharisees got out as fast as they could, sputtering about how they would join forces with Herod’s followers and ruin him. † This scripture details how the Pharisees consulted together and decide that they would join forces with Herod’s followers and go against Jesus. John 18:14 â€Å"It was Caiaphas who had advised the Jews that it was to their advantage that one man die for the people. † In this scripture Caiaphas is advising (counseling) the people on Jesus dying for the people. Advise The word advise has 947 different translations in 873 versus in the King James Version of the Bible and is derived from the Hebrew word ya-ats, meaning to know, learn to know, to perceive, see and discern, to name a few. These translations were only referenced to the Old Testament according to Blue Letter Bible; however after cross referencing with Crosswalk, New Testament scriptures were listed as well. Exodus 18:19 â€Å"Now listen to me. Let me tell you how to do this so that God will be in this with you. Be there for the people before God, but let the matters of concern be presented to God. † This scripture details Moses father in law advising him to be there for the people, however to allow God to handle everything and work things out for them. I Kings 12:6 â€Å"King Rehoboam talked it over with the elders who had advised his father when he was alive. ‘What’s your counsel? How do you suggest that I answer the people? ’† In this scripture the King is seeking to be counseled and advised from the elders as to how he should treat the people. Acts 21:21 â€Å"They’ve been told that you advise believing Jews who live surrounded by Gentiles to go light on Moses, telling them that they don’t need to circumcise their children or keep up the old traditions. This isn’t sitting at all well with them. † In this scripture they are discussing getting advise as to whether they should follow the traditional teachings of Moses and allow their children to be circumcised or if they should go against tradition. Help The word help appears 126 times in 117 versus throughout the King James Version of the Bible the Old and New Testament according to Blue letter Bible. Help is listed as to help (Qal), succor (Niphal), or support (Hiphil) which is defined as to give or provide what is necessary to accomplish a task or satisfy a need; to contribute strength or means to; render assistance to; to cooperate effectively (Webster 2005). Genesis 2:18 â€Å"God said, ‘It’s not good for the Man to be alone; I’ll make him a helper, a companion. ’† In this scripture help is being used in the form of God giving Adam a companion in order for him to no longer be alone. Mark 9:24 â€Å"No sooner were the words out of his mouth than the father cried, ‘Then I believe. Help me with my doubts! ’† In this scripture the father of the demon possessed boy was seeking Jesus’ help with casting the demon out of his son. The father was acknowledging that he had a need of Jesus and that he knew that Jesus could help him, although a part of him had doubts, I would venture to say it was because the disciples had tried to cast the demon out of the boy and were unable to do so. Advice The word advice appears 9 times in 9 versus in the King James Version of the Bible and is derived from the Hebrew word dabar, meaning speech, word, speaking, thing. II Samuel 19:43 â€Å"And the men of Israel answered the men of Judah, and said , We have ten parts in the king, and we have also more right in David than ye: why then did ye despise us, that our advice should not be first had in bringing back our king? And the words of the men of Judah were fiercer than the words of the men of Israel. † In this scripture they are seeking advice as to why they were not sought out first as to the decision regarding bringing back the king. I Corinthians 1:10 â€Å"I have a serious concern to bring up with you, my friends, using the authority of Jesus, our Master. I’ll put it as urgently as I can: You must get along with each other. You must learn to be considerate of one another, cultivating a life in common. † In this scripture Paul is giving the people advice on getting along with each other and learning to be considerate. Discussion After completing this assignment and getting the information and knowledge gained from this course I can say that my view of counseling has changed. Although I have read the bible many times, and I am taking up Professional Counseling, it did not occur to me until this assignment how the bible is definitely the foundation for any counseling practice. When you look at some of the terms used to describe Jesus in the text,( i. e. Master, Teacher, Counselor, etc. ) it puts things in to perspective as to where the foundation of counseling began. Jesus is the central focus of counseling and the exemplar of the Wonderful Counselor. The Bible is about counseling, giving both understanding of people and methods of ministering to people. The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom, and wisdom is the only worthy goal of counseling. (Carson, 2005). The Bible is authoritative, relevant and comprehensively sufficient for counseling. God has spoken to every issue that humans could possible face in the 66 Books of the Bible, which establishes the goal of counseling, how to change, what the role of the counselor is, counseling methods and so much more. The Bible’s view of counseling defines a distinctive ideal for how we as humans should live. The image of Christ is a familiar item in Christian profession, but its implications are often ignored when it comes to counseling. Much of the difficulty of counseling consists in sustaining suffers in hope through the comforts of the gospel. Counseling is simply the personalized ministry of the Bible, tailored to the particular situations and problems of individuals and small groups. In Genesis, God led the way when he was talking to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden regarding the decision they made to disobey his word and follow the serpent. Although this is a clear cut example of God counseling the two (advising, consulting, teaching, helping, etc. ), I don’t think we (society) really looks at this situation in regards to a counseling aspect. Models of spiritual counseling in the Bible can serve as important templates for counseling in the professional (secular) as well as the Christian aspects. The emphasis on communication and relationships implies the concept of involvement which is dependent on availability to council (Acts 20:31) and the importance of balance in the process of counseling, (Galatians 6:2 and 6:5). Conclusion There are so many more words that are found in the counseling sector that are used throughout the Bible this paper only included a few. Hathaway (2009) talks about Proverbs and Psalms being gold mines of wisdom and consolation relevant to counseling. The words from the Bible relating to counseling enhances counseling and are deemed appropriate as they relate to counseling outside the Christian realm. A concern that arose while doing the research is that the Biblical counseling aspect is non-subjective and refers to the counsel and the instructive power of God through the Holy Spirit. Biblical words in counseling are the foundation from where counseling stems, which reiterates that there is nothing new under the sun as it relates to what can be found in the Word of God. McMinn (1996 )states scripture and the counseling approach God enjoins, treats all of human life. The Bible’s counseling, on which we must seek to model our own counseling, speaks to the gamut of problems in living. Scripture comforts the disturbed and disturbs the comfortable, turning people from foolishness to wisdom in every area: e. g. , learning to conciliate and to build constructive relationships in family, church, workplace, and neighborhood; attitudes and practices regarding finances and material possessions; responding to physical health or illness, to wealth or poverty, to success or failure, to acceptance or rejection; self-and other deception; addictive behaviors; the gamut of emotions, whether dysphoric (e. . , anger, depression, anxiety, fear, guilt) or euphoric (e. g. , love, happiness, joy, gratitude, confidence); decision-making; the response to suffering and bereavement; and so forth. In relation to using the Bible as a counseling tools it is best summed by Walker (2005) the Bible is sufficient to provide a systematic approach to counseling. The Bible pr ovides and models both counsel and counseling, teaching us to do likewise, with the intention of changing and sustaining people.

Indigenous Tradition Essay

In the past people have mistaken about their tradition Indigenous originality or occurring naturally (country, region etc) To be indigenous kinship (relation to one another) and location(connection of particular place) Indigenous religion beliefs, experience and practices concerning non-falsifiable realities of people who have kinship and location Syncretism: Syncretism merging of elements from different religions. Eg : north American tradition have been influenced by Christianity, some African rituals are influences by Islam. * Change occurs everywhere. * Traditions are less authentic (accurate) than thousands year ago Indigenous can be found anywhere: * Anishinaubae: drumming ceremony in Toronto * Yoruba: Funeral rites in London * Maori: Purification ritual in opera house Sydney Australia Misconceptions * Common to Indigenous traditions is colonialism * Oglala (Indigenous community) –> a theorist explained them as â€Å"warriors without weapons basically they were incapable to adapting a new economy lifestyle they focused on how to make them â€Å"modern Indians† * Outsider lack insider knowledge. * Scholars often used terms such as fetish, myth, mana, taboo to explain Indigenous traditions. * Eg â€Å" Indigenous stories are called myth where the bible is considered to be true. Primitive Cultures that are unchanged from the beginning primitive Christians, who believed in god and their tradition, had superiority and began to spread their religion to who didn’t know about gospel Indigenous traditions are tend to think more primitive — Due to non-literate * But writing to not better than oral speaking * Mayan did use writing * Most Indigenous people are very literate. Indigenous tradition are tend to think more primitive – consider everything to be sacred (untrue) * Eg : Navajo : ceremony that transforms normal house into a scared place. So everything such as eating, sleeping is considered to be sacred. * Australian aborigine knows where to pray(know the difference between sacred and non sacred mountains) Primitive term is now disagreeing by many scoloars Mohawk and Cree (Dr Clare Brant) Mohawk: Indigenous traditions who give more food to their guest to show their wealth. Cree: Indigenous tradition who eat all the food offered to show scarcity. These two traditions did not go well together and this shows that Indigenous traditions are different from each other. Another point is that we see other cultures according to our own cultures. Gender roles: * Male: hunting and warfare * Female: healing and food preparation * Maori carvers were men and weavers were women. Bunu men frow cotton and women turn it into clothes. * Sometimes the roles switch just like other traditions * Usually religions practices are different for men and woman too. Power of speech Oral speaking is very imp for Indigenous traditions things are passed down oraly. Many people think oral primitive (untrue). Both Quran and Bible was passed down orally before written into text Stories : After life : * Kewa: a man finds a tunnel where his dead people wre living together and they gave them many things and asks him not to speak of it. When he goes and tell everyone about the tunnel, he breaks the promise and when he returns the tunnel is gone. * Anishinaubae : young man fiance died, and he go on a journey to find her and when he found her , he returns home heartbroken, keeping his promise. * These stories tell us about importance of relationships tell us about how we should live than about dying Writing stores often â€Å"fixed in time†. Trickster: * Considered as â€Å"culture heroes† because they are the central figures in many stores * Usually shape shift usually into animals * Can change genders sometime biological and sometime just clothes changing * Outer form is reflected into infidelity * They can appear as fools, selfish, kind, scandalous etc. * Usually driven by self interest alone * Trickster stores show us how we should behave and how we should not * The stories often explain the origins of world and connect to a community more deeply. * Embodies the extremes of humanity: human weakness and strength Practice (rituals). Indigenous tradition rituals are very similar to our traditions * Rituals remind us on what is imp in our life. * In religious terms, rituals, communicate some ways with gods, ancestor and spirits. * Rituals are roots in the human needs and relationship Rituals : * Every rituals varies * Usually involves food Muslim and Jews have specific food eating habits * Many Buddhist set food portions aside for ancestors * Anishinaubae put small amount of food for the spirits * Some rituals are more complicated * Such as marriage, death, birth * Sometimes these rituals mark transformation and sometimes they help to bring the transformation about. * Indigenous tradition rituals serve in some ways to recreate some aspects of the world, order and life Journey: * Going on a journey/quest: rites of passage * Journey to a new place is where a transformation occurs. * The person returns home with physical change, such as tattoo, scar or a body part to symbolize their new self. * Pondos: moved into a special hut to become sacred healers- if they go into town before they must be covered in white * White usually symbolize the color of transformation in Africa * Anishinaubae vision quest – yong man travels far away from home only with water and be completely alone. Then late he become a â€Å"adult man† and comes home with food and the ritual is complete . Sacrifice Mel Gibson: sacrifices in Indigenous traditions are vey common Bear sacrifice: raise a young cub, and raise it for two day and kill it. Head is emptied and filled with flowers and then the animal is cooked and eaten. They think that the bear is the gold’s spirit and they see it as freeing the spirit. Sun dance : dance till days and community provide support. Some sun dance involves sacrifice . the pole and lodge are buil to show the creation of the world Nuer : sacrifice ox for healing. Xhosa : when a woman fall ill the community gathers and kill a cow and do many rituals. This is due their thinking that the ancestor or spirit is angry with the women. * above rituals shows the involvement of community even though there is sacrifice involved. * The rituals ultimately brings people together * Sacrifice like rituals create order and meaning * Those rituals join people to the past and respond to current situation Cultural Expression What you see is not always what you get Art in Indigenous traditions is aout relationship objects are coonected to people Weaving : * Intertwine and connect * Weavers work together , helping one another , passing knowledge. * Shows bonds among people Maori Tradition : * All weavers are female * A girl is said all about weaving more said more discouraged if people saw true commitment then they let the girl into whare pora(caretakers of the weaving) * Whare pora have rules no sex before dying, no food allowed during weaving, special garment should be weaved during the day and not strangets can view the weaving * Traditional colors : black, red and white * Sacred thread is sewed on all garments to show the bond Underlying cloth : * Clothing declare who we are and how we fit into social fabric * Has two side : can hide much as it reveals and help us create a public face * Lady gaga : he masks and clothes hide part of her but also reveals her identity that she wishes to show * Special clothes are associated with imp rituals * Bunu : believes that the special clothes are kind of womb, enveloping the body as like a fetus is being born. Clothing only wears it does not die old cloth is replaces by new, as old spirits is reborn Spirit basket : * Oldest arts * In pomo community men makes the heavy basket for hunting and fishing * Women were responsible for religious baskets. * Mable mckey : was a traditional healer in pomo community and famous basket weaver in the world. Masks : * Masks are used in imp rituals wedding , funerals, hunting celebration etc * Masks are ment to ring spirit into the community lesser deities (gods) * Mask represent certain animals does not mean they worship the animal * Epa mask in Yoruba community extremely heavy show the strength require to dance with the mask and enter the adult hood with responsibility. * Carvers are usualy male Totem poles : * Very specific to each communities * Function of totem poles also varies in each tradition. * Meaning varies serve as a supporting structure or grave makers and other as a symbol for power * Most also tell stories such as historical, achievements and religious * Grizzly bear at the base holding a human represents self-preservation or survival. Moko * Maori carvings are less likely to be displayed outside the original physical context * Moko tattoos * In the beginning the women were only allowed tattoos around their lips and chin where men can have tattoos all over their face * Moko story remind the Maori people their ancestor and importance of meeting ones obligation and treating one another with respect Ancestoral House. * Marae Maori religious and social home. Site of wedding , funeral, celebration. * Authority is held by community elders where they use the space to pass n traditions, stories and arts, carving, weaving. * If the artist when wrong painting the place, they could be put to death. * Location is very imp it must be located in a place where the previous generation carried out the religious and social activities. * Whare Whakairo physical form which represents the body of the ancestor * The building is divided into body parts of the ancestor Three points and Shrine : * Some traditions are very plain, harder for an outsider to see * Three issues : * Most rituals are performed outside * Think bout the function of religious structures that are used in the rituals * What you see is not often what you get * Mbari shrine : represents the founder of the community, a great healer and was forced to flee because they were attacked by another community. Elder stands her to protects the shrine all the time. * The guard signify the change modern development Hogans * Navajo Hogan traditional living space as well as the site for many rituals. * It is the site for daily activities and some are religious and some are not * Before new Hogan is occupied a song is performed. * Known as Blessing way ceremony four divining earth, mountain woman, water woman, corn woman also the song speaks everyday things * According to them world is structure – Hogan All these things symbolizes: * Link btw past and present * Btw community and place * Btw our world and world of spirits Colonialism * Colonialism process where people from one place maintain a settlement in another and to the effects of people who were already there. * Changes include – subjugation or removal , new laws, social practices and new economy. * Power and profit are factors that drive colonialism. * Religion is also one of the reason Colombus : * He destroyed a community Arawaks * He wanted to tell him where the gold was people who gave him gold were left alive and people who didn’t were killed(by cutting hands) * Then he realized that the most valuable are the people, so he sent them back to Europe by the boat land. Genocides : * 20 million African were taken as slave and only 11 million returned * 96% od aboriginals were dead in Australia * factors of depopulation : military action, torture, starvation, suicide and slavery. * More aboriginals are killed when the Americans want more land Masters of continent : * As settler population growed the indigenous population reduced less friendly for land * Terra nullius no ones land was the phrase that European settlers used no owner ship primitive – they do not count as people Conversion : * Many converted to different religion due to colonialism * In Indonesia indigenous tradition is not recognized by lay so all are counted as muslim Loss of religion : * Europeans tried to convert them into chistianity rarely worked * Europeans used military strengeth and religion â€Å"our people is tronger because our god is stronger â€Å" * Missionaries. * Also sometimes the colonial government made the indigenous religion illegal * Eg : potlatch and sundance was made illegal –? Die to the felf harm and economic hardship is potlatch(poverty) * Colonialism lead to patriarchy The potlatch : * Feast that are hosted by a family and hosting family presents the guests with gifts * Demonstrate hospitality and redistributing wealth. Loss of language : * Colonialism language disappeared forever * 20 languages extinct * when communities died, the languages died with them * children’s were forbidden to speak their own languages â€Å"Stolen generation† Loss of Land: * Many religious and indigenous land were taken and was destroyed * Two problems that non-indigenous people had: * Very common belief, no specific belief and are mostly about practice * Religion such as Christians can pray anywhere but indigenous people had to pray at a specific site Identity : (the sympols of indeginous people in sports) * Cleveland Indians play at Atlanta braves : it’s a reminder of ongoing colonialism that has been taken from the indigenous people. * Indigenous oriented names : â€Å"eskimo pie† to market the products evoke a primitive stereotype that is best suited for the product.

Companies, Ethics, and Privacy of Personal Information Essay

Introduction Personal data is quickly becoming a commodity in todays high technology world. This information is used by banks, investment and brokerage companies, credit card merchants, government agencies (local, state and federal), and consumer product-based companies. Most people probably dont realize the amount of information thats shared between companies, or how often its done. Many companies sell and share customer data to help sell products and find out what new products they should produce. Other uses include gathering information about inventory levels to help better determine what types of products are bought at which store, when and how often. This can be used for inventory and production, to make sure that the store (or†¦show more content†¦For example, lets say that company A has a very formal set of policies and procedures for storing your data, where it can only be accessed through specific channels and authorization. On the other hand, theres company B, who doesnt have a ny formal security policy. Theyre willing to send your data to anyone who hands them a check, and dont even tell you what data was sent and to whom. Often, the only way people find out is when they discover fraudulent charges on their credit cards, mysterious access to their bank accounts, or people obtaining loans and other items in their name. I feel that companies have a moral and ethical responsibility to ensure to protect our data from being compromised, but also to inform us who theyre sharing this information with and how it will be used, in addition to making sure that its not used for any other purpose. Different types of data that are commonly shared I personally find the amount of information presently available to be somewhat staggering, if not downright scary. If someone managed to put a number of databases together, I would be scared to find out what would be discovered. 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